Handbook of Power Quality

Handbook of Power Quality......Page 4
Contents......Page 8
List of Contributors......Page 22
Preface......Page 26
1 Frequency Variations......Page 28
1.1 Frequency Quality Indices......Page 30
1.2 Frequency Measuring......Page 31
1.3.1 Influence of the Frequency Variation on the Actuation Motors......Page 33
1.3.3 Transformers and Coils in the Power Network......Page 34
1.4.1 Influence of Frequency Variations on Asynchronous Motors......Page 35
1.4.2 Influence of Frequency Variations on Parallel-Connected Condensers and Coils......Page 38
1.5 Governing of Turbine Speed......Page 39
1.6 Frequency Control in Power Systems......Page 43
1.6.1 Composite Load......Page 44
1.6.2 The Generation Characteristic......Page 46
1.6.3 The System Properties and Control Basics......Page 47
1.6.4 Frequency Control in an Islanding System and in Interconnected Systems......Page 49
1.6.5 Frequency Control: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary......Page 50
1.6.6 Technical and Organizational Aspects of Load–Frequency Control......Page 55
Bibliography......Page 56
2.1 Distribution Reliability......Page 58
2.1.1 Customer-Based Indices......Page 59
2.1.2 Load-Based Indices......Page 61
2.1.3 Variation in the Utility Indices......Page 62
2.2.1 Customer Service......Page 63
2.2.3 Voltage Quality......Page 64
2.3 Factors Affecting Reliability Performance......Page 67
2.3.1 Reliability Indices Reporting......Page 68
2.3.2 Differences Based on Type of Supply......Page 69
2.4.1 Utility-Side Improvement Options......Page 71
2.4.2 Custom Power Devices......Page 73
2.5.1 Size of the End-User Load and Duration Affect Cost......Page 76
2.5.2 Market for Reliability......Page 77
2.5.3 Value of Reliability: a Macro View......Page 78
2.5.4 Impact of Reliability Events on End-User Productivity......Page 80
2.5.5 Mapping Reliability to End-User Facility Operating Hours......Page 81
Bibliography......Page 84
3 Voltage Control in Distribution Systems......Page 86
3.1 Description of the Phenomena......Page 87
3.2 Disturbance Sources......Page 88
3.3.1 Load Models......Page 89
3.3.2 Voltage Drop......Page 90
3.3.3 Voltage Stability......Page 91
3.4.1 Generator Excitation Control......Page 95
3.4.2 Transformer Ratio Control......Page 97
3.4.3 Voltage Control by Means of Reactive Power Flow Change......Page 99
3.4.4 Voltage Control by Means of Network Impedance Change......Page 101
3.5.2 Voltage Standards in Grid Disturbed Operating Conditions......Page 103
Bibliography......Page 104
4.1 Description of the Phenomena......Page 106
4.2.1 Voltage Dip Duration......Page 109
4.2.2 Magnitude of a Voltage Dip......Page 110
4.3.1 Sources of Voltage Dips......Page 114
4.4 Effects......Page 116
4.4.1 IT Equipment and Control Systems......Page 117
4.4.3 Induction Motors......Page 119
4.4.5 Variable Speed Drives......Page 120
4.5 Mitigation......Page 121
4.5.2 Reduction of the Fault Clearance Time......Page 122
4.5.3 Modification of the Supply System Configuration......Page 123
4.5.4 Voltage Stabilizers......Page 124
4.5.5 Improvement in Equipment Immunity......Page 125
4.6.1 Principles of Measurement......Page 127
4.6.2 Statistical Methods of Analysis......Page 139
4.7 Contract......Page 141
4.7.2 Reference Voltage Value......Page 143
4.7.3 Location and Method of Connection of Measuring Instrument......Page 144
4.7.5 Threshold Values for Disturbance Detection......Page 145
4.7.7 Methods for Aggregation of Measurement Results......Page 146
4.8 Standards......Page 151
4.9.1 Indices Based on the Voltage Change......Page 153
4.9.2 Energy-Related Indices......Page 154
4.9.3 Others......Page 156
Bibliography......Page 158
5.1.1 Voltage Changes, Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker......Page 162
5.1.2 Physiology of Flicker Perception......Page 164
5.2 Parameters......Page 165
5.3.1 The IEC Flickermeter......Page 166
5.3.2 Use of the Flickermeter......Page 173
5.3.3 Simplified Methods for Pst Assessment......Page 175
5.4 Sources......Page 178
5.4.1 Industrial Loads......Page 179
5.4.3 Wind Turbine Generation Systems......Page 182
5.6 Mitigation Strategies......Page 183
5.6.1 Devices Based on Decreasing Reactive Power Variations......Page 184
5.6.2 Methods Oriented to Increase the Short-Circuit Power......Page 187
Bibliography......Page 188
6.1 Description of the Phenomena......Page 190
6.2 Symmetrical Components of Currents and Voltages......Page 192
6.3 Parameters......Page 197
6.4 Measurements......Page 198
6.5 Sources......Page 200
6.6.2 Synchronous Generators......Page 201
6.7 Mitigation......Page 202
6.7.1 Principle of Balancing......Page 203
6.7.2 Static Compensators......Page 205
6.8.1 Limits......Page 208
6.8.2 Principles of Assessment......Page 210
Bibliography......Page 211
7.1 Description of the Phenomena......Page 214
7.1.1 Composition of Distorted Waveform......Page 215
7.1.2 Decomposition of Distorted Waveform......Page 216
7.1.4 Classification of Distortion Components......Page 217
7.1.5 Quantities Describing Voltage and Current Distortion......Page 219
7.2 Parameters......Page 221
7.3 Measurements......Page 222
7.4.1 Transformers......Page 227
7.4.3 Arc Furnaces......Page 229
7.4.5 Electronic and Power Electronic Equipment......Page 231
7.4.6 Harmonic Current Values/Magnitudes for Selected Loads......Page 235
7.5 Voltage and Current Harmonics......Page 236
7.6 Effects......Page 240
7.6.1 Power Factor......Page 241
7.6.2 Overheating of Phase and Neutral Conductors......Page 244
7.6.3 Skin Effect......Page 245
7.6.4 Motors and Generators......Page 248
7.6.5 Transformers......Page 250
7.6.6 Capacitors......Page 253
7.6.7 Light Sources......Page 254
7.6.8 Nuisance Tripping of Circuit-Breakers......Page 255
7.6.9 Earth-Fault Currents......Page 256
7.6.10 Converters and Electronic Equipment......Page 257
7.6.11 Measuring Instruments......Page 259
7.6.12 Relay and Contactor Protective Systems......Page 261
7.7.1 Methods of Voltage Distortion Reduction......Page 263
7.7.2 Reduction of Harmonic Emission......Page 264
7.7.4 Reduction of Load Sensitivity to Disturbances......Page 279
7.8 Standards......Page 284
Bibliography......Page 286
8 Overvoltages......Page 290
8.1.2 Temporary Overvoltage......Page 291
8.1.4 Combined Overvoltage......Page 292
8.1.5 Overvoltage Propagation......Page 294
8.2 Parameters......Page 295
8.2.1 Lightning Impulse Protective Level of a Surge Arrester......Page 296
8.3.1 Internal Overvoltages......Page 297
8.3.2 External Overvoltages......Page 310
8.4.1 Breakdown Consequences......Page 312
8.4.2 Reduction of Overvoltage Risk and Level......Page 313
8.5.2 Insulation Coordination......Page 314
8.5.3 Overvoltage Protective Devices......Page 318
8.6.1 Insulation Coordination......Page 323
Bibliography......Page 325
9 Analysis of Waveforms in Modern Power Systems......Page 326
9.2.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio......Page 327
9.2.3 Spectral Leakage and Windowing......Page 328
9.2.5 Harmonic Power Measurement in Non-simultaneous Sampling......Page 329
9.3.1 Fortesque Transform Redefined for Non-sinusoidal Circuits......Page 334
9.3.2 Three-Wire Power System Analysis......Page 336
9.3.3 Four-Wire Power System Analysis......Page 343
9.4.1 Voltage and Current Quantities under Non-sinusoidal Unbalanced Conditions......Page 348
9.4.4 The Vector Apparent Power......Page 351
9.4.5 The Effective Apparent Power......Page 352
9.4.6 Harmonic Pollution and Unbalance......Page 353
9.4.8 Power Factor Definitions......Page 354
9.5 Localization of Sources of Waveform Distortion in a Modern Power System......Page 355
Bibliography......Page 356
10.1 Typical Earthing System......Page 358
10.2 Electric Resistivity of Soil......Page 359
10.3.1 Resistance and Impedance to Earth......Page 362
10.3.2 Voltage-to-Earth and Surface Potential Distribution......Page 366
10.3.3 Properties of Earth Electrodes at Lightning Currents......Page 367
10.4 Typical Earth-Electrode Constructions......Page 369
10.4.1 Simple Horizontal Earth Electrodes......Page 370
10.4.2 Simple Rod, Vertical Earth Electrodes......Page 373
10.4.3 Simple, Combined Earth Electrodes......Page 376
10.4.4 Meshed Earth Electrodes......Page 377
10.4.5 Foundation Earth Electrodes......Page 379
10.4.6 Cable with Earthing Effect......Page 381
10.5 Earthing Arrangements in Protection Against Electric Shock......Page 382
10.5.1 Earthing Arrangements as Protection Elements in LV Networks......Page 384
10.5.2 Earthing Arrangements as Protection Elements in HV Networks......Page 385
10.6 Role of Earthing in Electronic and Telecommunication Systems......Page 388
10.6.2 Combined Earthing System......Page 389
10.6.3 Safety Aspects......Page 390
10.6.4 Functionality Aspects......Page 393
10.6.5 Disturbances and Coupling Mechanisms......Page 394
10.6.6 Low-Noise Equipotential Bonding......Page 396
10.7.1 Chemical Corrosion......Page 397
10.7.2 Corrosion Caused by Stray (Direct) Currents......Page 399
10.7.3 Galvanic (Electrochemical) Corrosion......Page 400
10.8 Measurements of Earthing Arrangements......Page 402
10.8.1 Measurement of Soil Resistivity......Page 403
10.8.2 Measurement of Resistance to Earth of an Earth Electrode......Page 404
Bibliography......Page 407
11 Reliability of Electricity Supply: Structure......Page 410
11.1.1 Simple Radial System......Page 411
11.1.2 Ring Scheme......Page 412
11.1.3 Double Radial Scheme......Page 414
11.1.5 Compound Scheme......Page 415
11.2.2 Scheme of the Grid as a Link Between Supplies and Loads......Page 416
11.2.3 Characteristics of the Installation......Page 417
11.2.5 The Standard and Preferential Functions......Page 427
Bibliography......Page 428
12 Reliability of Electricity Supply: Appliances and Equipment......Page 430
12.1 Power Quality, Reliability and Availability......Page 431
12.2 General Aspects of Reliability Appliances......Page 432
12.3 Power System Protection Alternatives......Page 433
12.3.1 Power Conditioners......Page 434
12.4 Emergency and Standby Power Systems......Page 437
12.4.1 Engine-Driven Generators......Page 438
12.4.2 Microturbine-Driven Generators......Page 440
12.4.3 Uninterruptible Power Systems......Page 441
12.4.4 Dynamic UPS......Page 442
12.4.5 Static UPS......Page 443
12.4.6 Hybrid Static/Dynamic UPS......Page 444
12.4.7 D.C. Power Supply Systems......Page 447
12.4.8 Technological Comparison......Page 448
12.5.2 Components......Page 452
12.5.3 Classification......Page 453
12.5.4 Application......Page 454
12.6.1 Components......Page 456
12.6.2 Classification......Page 459
12.6.3 UPS Technology......Page 460
12.6.4 Application......Page 465
12.6.5 Future Developments and Applications......Page 467
12.7 Good Engineering Practice......Page 469
Bibliography......Page 470
13.1 Monitoring Objectives......Page 472
13.1.1 Benefits of Power Quality Monitoring......Page 473
13.2.1 Measurement Chain......Page 474
13.2.3 Transients Measurement......Page 475
13.2.7 Precision......Page 476
13.2.9 Measurement Aggregation Algorithm......Page 477
13.3 Selection of Monitoring Instruments......Page 478
13.3.1 General Features of Monitoring Instruments......Page 479
13.3.2 Signal Input/Output......Page 480
13.4.1 Power Quality Program......Page 481
13.4.2 Managing Monitoring Projects......Page 483
13.4.3 Immunization Program......Page 485
13.5.3 Software and Data Analysis Tools......Page 487
Bibliography......Page 488
14 Static Converters and Power Quality......Page 490
14.1.1 Industrial Equipment......Page 491
14.1.2 Control and Informatics Equipment......Page 496
14.1.3 Solutions......Page 497
14.1.4 Electromagnetic Compatibility Issues......Page 504
14.1.5 Impact on Loads Supplied by Power Converters......Page 508
14.2.1 Impact of Voltage Disturbances on Static Converters......Page 514
14.2.3 Immunization Techniques......Page 517
Bibliography......Page 521
15 Compensation of Reactive Power......Page 526
15.1.1 Characteristics of Inductances and Capacitances......Page 527
15.1.2 Reactive Power......Page 529
15.1.3 Wattless current......Page 530
15.1.4 Reactive Power Compensator......Page 532
15.2.1 Control and Regulation of Reactive Power......Page 533
15.2.2 Centrally and Dispersed Compensation......Page 535
15.2.3 Detuning......Page 537
15.3 Passive Filters......Page 540
15.3.1 Dedicated Filtering Circuits for Individual Frequencies......Page 541
15.3.2 Central and Dispersed Solution......Page 542
15.3.3 L/C Ratio......Page 543
15.3.4 Sound Frequency Signals......Page 545
Bibliography......Page 546
16 Distributed Generation and Power Quality......Page 548
16.1.1 Steady-State Modeling......Page 549
16.1.2 Dynamic Modeling......Page 550
16.2.3 Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker......Page 551
16.2.4 Harmonics......Page 552
Bibliography......Page 553
17.1 Market Players......Page 556
17.1.2 Grid Operators......Page 557
17.2 Contract Types......Page 558
17.2.2 Small Businesses......Page 559
17.2.4 Large Companies......Page 560
17.3.1 Reason for Load Management......Page 561
17.3.3 Real-Time Pricing......Page 562
17.3.5 Intelligent Energy Meter......Page 563
17.4 Power Quality in the Electricity Market......Page 564
17.4.1 Power Quality Contracts......Page 565
17.4.2 Power Quality Market......Page 569
Bibliography......Page 570
18 Cost of Poor Power Quality......Page 572
18.1.2 Work in Progress......Page 574
18.1.6 Specific Costs......Page 575
18.2 Studies on Cost of Poor PQ......Page 576
18.3 Long Interruptions......Page 579
18.5 Voltage Dips......Page 583
18.6 Harmonics......Page 585
18.7 Other Disturbances......Page 586
18.8 Profiles by Sector......Page 588
18.9 Cost Per Event of PQ Disturbances......Page 597
18.10 PQ Solutions......Page 601
18.11.1 Investment Analysis......Page 609
18.11.3 Project Classifications......Page 610
18.11.5 The Time Value of Money......Page 611
18.11.6 Future Value of a Single Cash Flow......Page 612
18.11.8 Deterministic Approach to PQ Investment Analysis......Page 613
18.11.9 Discounted Cash Flow Methods......Page 614
18.11.10 Non Discounted Cash Flow Methods......Page 617
18.11.11 Break-even Analysis......Page 618
Bibliography......Page 619
19 Power Quality and Rational Use of Energy......Page 620
19.1.2 Economic Considerations......Page 621
19.2.1 Adapted Use of Electrical Systems......Page 622
19.2.2 Efficient Loads......Page 623
19.3.1 Emission of Harmonic Distortion by Fluorescent Lamps......Page 625
19.3.2 Emission of Harmonic Distortion by VSDs......Page 628
19.3.4 Immunity of VSDs......Page 630
Bibliography......Page 632
20.1 Customer Definition......Page 634
20.3 Analysis Process of the Customer with Respect to the Requirements Concerning the Product......Page 635
20.4 Multiplicity of Goods: Active Categories in the Territory of Rome......Page 636
Bibliography......Page 638
Index......Page 640